Music and Studying

Music and studying 1 Running head: DOES MUSIC HELP YOU STUDY Music and studying: Does listening to music help you study? 902421 John F. Kennedy High School Music and studying 2 Abstract In the western world, music is easily available through TV, radio, and videos. Background music is played in many public places like the mall and elevators. Many studies on listening to music while studying has been inconclusive because music can be interpreted in many different ways. Music and studying 3 Music and Studying Affects on studying Music becomes increasingly important in adolescent years with most teenagers averaging around 3 hours of listening to music a day. Teenagers use music to satisfy their emotional needs and portray the world around them. Studies have shown that studying at home has been accompanied by music or TV in the background (Kotsopoulou 1997; Patton, Stinard, and Routh 1983). Research on certain effects on playing music while studying shows very little significant differences between middle school, high school, and college students on whether listening to music helps them concentrate, gets rid of boredom, keeps them company, and helps them learn faster. It also shows that listening to music can interfere with studying. For instance if they sang along or developed to high of an arousal it would then become a distraction. University students showed that music had a more relaxing effect but was also more distracting then in younger students. This could mean the music choices they were listening to were increasing meta-cognitive awareness in older ages. Students at a younger age had the most positive response to fast pace tempo. While university students had a negative response to fast pace tempo. There were few significant differences between nationality and what types of music they played other than instrumental music, arousing and calming music. The Japanese played classical music the least. US played calming music the least and the US and UK played arousing music the least. While the Greeks Music and studying 4 listened to all of these the most. Overall, there is no specific type of music that is best for studying. Young people just often play music they enjoy. Most students do not play music while studying for a long period of time or revising for an exam. Henderson, Crews, and Barlow (1945) explored the effect of music as a source of distraction during the taking of a test. Along with memorising material or learning a different language. But they often play music when thinking or writing. This would suggest that the student are aware of how they will perform while listening to music and studying. Students mainly played music while studying when they were happy or bored and that their mood determined whether they wanted to listen to music while studying. Most students turned off music when they felt it becoming a distraction with there concentrating. Overall, the findings suggest parents and teachers to be not concerned about students playing music while studying. Students are aware of when music can be beneficial to studying and when it is interfering with concentrating. So generally when the music starts to become a distraction they would just turn it off. Music and studying 5 References Kotsopoulou, A. , & Hallam, S. (2010). The Perceived Impact of Playing Music while Studying: Age and Cultural Differences. Educational Studies, 36(4), 431440. Cripe, F. F. 1986. Rock music as therapy for children with attention deficit disorder: An exploratory study. Journal of Music Therapy 23: 30–7 Gregoire, M. A. 1984. Music as a prior condition to task performance. Journal of Music Therapy 21: 133–45

Discuss the Following “Infection Prevention is Every Healthcare Professional’s Responsibility” Essay

This essay is to discuss the statement: ‘Infection prevention is every healthcare professional’s responsibility’. In order to identify the healthcare professional’s responsibility the author will be drawing from three different sources including documents from the Department of Health, the Nursing and Midwifery Council’s code of conduct and the Royal College of Nursing. After this, the essay will talk about two different practises that healthcare professionals can use to break the chain of infection. These will include the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) and the importance of hand washing and the impact these practises have on infection prevention. The essay will then focus on how such high standards of infection prevention can cause psychosocial repercussions on the patient and how visitors can have a compromising effect on healthcare professional’s efforts to break the chain of infection. The Department of Health (DoH), the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) and the Royal College of Nursing (RCN) all provide documents and guidelines for the public to read about the role of the healthcare professional. They are all put in place to safeguard the public, the workers, and to help professionals deliver the highest quality service to the service users. It is possible to relate a lot of these documents and guidelines to infection prevention. These services have made it clear that infection prevention is every healthcare professional’s responsibility through their policies and guidelines. In the NMC’s Code of Conduct at the chapter on keeping knowledge and skills up to date, number thirty-eight of the code states ‘you must have the knowledge and skills for safe and effective practise when working without direct supervision’ (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2008). This is important because if the healthcare professional’s knowledge and skills were not up to date then they would not understand common illnesses, causes or the most effective way to prevent them. This would therefore put the service users at risk and the healthcare professional could be held accountable. The RCN promotes good practise by setting eight main principles for professionals to take guidance from. Principle C states, ‘Nurses and nursing staff manage risk, are vigilant about risk, and help to keep everyone safe in places they receive healthcare’ (Royal College of Nursing, 2010). This is an important element of safe and effective care and provides an  understanding for the public and workers that infection is a risk that all health care professionals must be vigilant about and it is the workers as well as the public’s responsibility to make their best efforts to control it. The Department of Health creates legislation and policy which the healthcare system have to abide by. One policy document that was published by the DoH is the ‘Prevention and Control of Infection in Care Homes’ (Department of Health, 2013). It is targeted at healt hcare settings such as care trusts, and is about ‘best practise guidance’. The policy document includes information such as the chain of infection, hand washing techniques as well as asepsis and aseptic technique guidelines. The DoH has created this document to improve infection prevention by giving more responsibility to healthcare professionals and urging them to use these precautionary measures. ‘The RCN considers infection prevention and control to be a core element of quality, patient safety and governance systems and as such it is one of the RCN’s key areas of activity. Infection prevention and control is the clinical application of microbiology in practice’ (Royal College of Nursing, 2013). The chain of infection model displays the transmission of infection from one patient to another. The model has six components which if broken from the chain will prevent the infection from spreading. These components include; a causative micro-organism, reservoir, portal of exit, mode of transmission, portal of entry and susceptible host. As infection prevention is every healthcare professionals responsibility, healthcare professionals should work together to break the links in the chain of infection. A common component to break is the ‘reservoir’ link. Through employee health, environmental sanitation and disinfection. Another way to break the chain o f infection is to follow standard precautions by using personal protective equipment where necessary. Personal protective equipment (PPE) are special garments or equipment used by healthcare workers and service users to help protect against infections. It includes protective clothing, gloves, respirators and more. All these are essential in the discontinuation of the chain of infection. By law, employers have to supply healthcare workers with PPE and if not worn by the workers they may be held accountable. The different type of PPE used and when to use it will be stated in the service  users care plan as some service users are more high risk than others. It is therefore the healthcare workers responsibility to use personal protective equipment (PPE) to prevent the spread of infection. It is a well-known fact that hand washing significantly reduces the spread of pathogens within healthcare settings and decreases mortality rates. The Department of Health and the Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology (APIC) regularly encourage professionals to follow guidelines they set. ‘Unhygienic practises, such as healthcare professionals not washing hands between treating patients, can spread infections’ (Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology, 2005). Studies show that regular hand washing is a fundamental procedure in the prevention of common infections such as Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus Aureus (MRSA). ‘If you make nurses wash their hands you can control 80% of [MRSA]’ Mark Enright, senior research fellow in microbiology at Bath University’ (Eaton, 2005). Furthermore, according to the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC), ‘hand washing is the single most important procedure for preventing the spread of infection’ (Walker-Barrs, 2000). The APIC has produced a clear guide to hand washing that all healthcare professionals should follow. Workers in the health industry come into contact with bodily secretions often infected with pathogens and therefore hand washing is advised to be carried out before and after seeing a patient (even if personal protective equipment is used). The APIC guide to hand washing also advises on the different types of soap to use. Signs in patient’s rooms should be placed to encourage visitors, staff and patients to wash hands regularly. It is the healthcare professional’s responsibility to place and emphasis on the importance of hand washing to prevent infection. Common healthcare associated infections (HAI’s) can all be reduced by putting appropriate infection prevention measures in place. Methicillin-resistant staphylococcus Aureus or MRSA is a well-known common infectious pathogen commonly found in healthcare settings. It attacks people with compromised immune systems therefore hospital wards are high risk settings. This puts an emphasis on how important it is to follow appropriate infection prevention methods. However, studies have undergone to find out if single room or  cohort isolation can reduce the spread of MRSA in intensive care units. The results were unexpected showing that isolating patients with MRSA doesn’t affect the chances of infection and has negative outcomes that are discussed later. ‘Moving MRSA-positive patients into single rooms or cohorted bays does not reduce cross-infection. Because transfer and isolation of critically ill patients in single rooms carries potential risks, our findings suggest that re-evaluation of isolation policies is required in intensive-care units where MRSA is endemic, and that more effective means of preventing spread of MRSA in such settings need to be found’ (Cepeda, 2005). Infection prevention in health care settings is important, however, it can have negative effects on the patient. Single room isolation is for people with serious infectious diseases and is often necessary as contact with other people can boost the chain of infection. However, there are various psychosocial implications for the client. ‘Health-care workers are half as likely to enter the rooms of patients in contact isolation’ (Kirklanda, 1999). Barriers used to protect the spread of infection like PPE can have a negative effect on the patient. For example, wearing gloves prohibits physical contact between the healthcare worker and the patient. This could give the patient a feeling that they are ‘infected’ or ‘dirty’. Furthermore, service users that get put into protective isolation may experience feelings of depression and loneliness as it reduces their contact with friends and family. These pointers require us to think about the way we go about infection prevention, for example, it would be essential to wear PPE when dealing with a patients bodily fluids however depending the type of illness they have, it may not be necessary to wear gloves when carrying out actions such as holding a patients hand. Isolation is costly, labour intensive and inconvenient for the patient and the healthcare employees. Additionally isolation is more likely to lead to patient neglect and error. A study investigating patient’s put into isolation for infection control was carried out. It found that: ‘compared with controls, patients isolated for infection control precautions experience more preventable adverse events, express greater dissatisfaction with their treatment, and have less documented care’ (Stelfox, 2003). Furthermore, Wilkins et al (1988) focused on ‘discovering whether isolation may induce mental illness†. He found that isolation  increases feelings of boredom, loneliness and insecurity. Ward, D. (2004) looked at ‘reducing the psychological effects of isolation’ and went on to find that after ‘the questionnaires were completed by 21 patients, nine participants identified negative emotions associated with isolation’ (Ward, 2004). Therefore, infection prevention is every healthcare professional’s responsibility, however, st udies have proof that some forms of infection prevention that are used today are harmful both socially and mentally. Moreover, healthcare professional’s efforts are undermined when visitors contaminate the healthcare setting with pathogens from outside. ‘The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has estimated that, nearly 2 million patients each year acquire an infection that is linked to a hospital visit. Of those, about 90,000 result in death’ (Davis, 2006). Despite hand gels, wash basins and personal protective equipment being provided as well as signs to encourage usage, visitors still do not understand the risk they are taking upon the service users when they do not acknowledge the importance of these measures. Visitors act as the ‘mode of transition’ within the chain of infection and influence the spread. As we cannot stop the public from visiting their friends and loved ones, it is the healthcare staff’s responsibility to encourage visitors to use appropriate precautions when entering and leaving the healthcare environment. The healthcare st aff may feel that there is no point in making infection prevention their responsibility if their efforts are simply disregarded and undermined by the public. To stop the spread of pathogens, visitors should be encouraged to wash their hands as often as possible, stay at home if they are unwell and ensure their immunisations are up to date. Additionally, limiting visitors will decrease the chance of the spread of infection. An article titled ‘Limit Visitors to Help Cut Hospital Infections’ states that ‘Chris Beasley said â€Å"visitors increase the risk of hospital-acquired infections† (HAIs) and that she is thinking of ways to reduce the number of non- patients in hospitals’. The article then goes on to suggest ‘patients undergoing elective surgery could have to identify their key visitors’’ (Harrison, 2005). The ‘key visitors’ idea proposed by England’s chief nursing officer provides a means to cutting the spr ead of infection by visitors. Consequently legislation putting this idea into place would support their  role of healthcare professional making infection prevention their responsibility. Through the course of this essay it has been proven that infection prevention is every healthcare professional’s responsibility and is backed up by policies, legislation and guidance from the Department of Health, the Nursing and Midwifery Council and the Royal College of Nursing. They have published guidance on hand washing and the use of personal protective equipment but most importantly they have set a foundation for good healthcare practise to safeguard the public. In the NMC code of conduct, numbers thirty-eight to forty-one are focuses on keeping knowledge and skills up to date. Good knowledge and skills are essential in the awareness of common illnesses such as MRSA and without them the healthcare professional is not making infection prevention their responsibility. Even though it has been proven that high levels of infection prevention can cause negative effects to the service healthcare professionals provide, there are actions we can implement to conquer them, for exa mple only using personal protective equipment when necessary as well as using single room isolation as a last resort. References Cepeda, A. (Jan 2005). Isolation of patients in single rooms or cohorts to reduce spread of MRSA in intensive-care units: prospective two centre study. The Lancet. 365 (9456), p295-296. Davis, S. (2006). Breaking the Chain – Eight Strategies for Reducing Risk of Hospital Acquired Infection. Environmental Sciences. 19 (12), p43-45. Department of Health and Health Protection Agency (2013). Prevention and Control of Infection in Care Homes. London: Department of Health and Health Protection Agency. P1-16. Eaton, L. (April 2005). Hand washing is more important than cleaner wards in controlling MRSA. Available: http://www.bmj.com/content/330/7497/922.3. Last accessed 18th October 2013. Harrison, S. (2005). Limit visitors to help cut hospital infections. Nursing Standard. 19 (41), p6. Kirklanda, K. (1999). Adverse effects of contact isolation. The Lancet. 354 (9185), p1177-1178. Nusing and Midwifery Council (2008). The Code: Standards of conduct, performance and ethics for nurses an d midwives. London: NMC. p6. Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology. (July 2005). Infection Control in Healthcare Settings. Postnote. 247, p2. Royal College of Nursing. (2010). The Principles of Nursing Practise. Available: http://www.rcn.org.uk/development/practice/principles/the_principles. Last accessed 2nd November 2013. Royal College of Nursing. (2013). Infection Prevention and Control. Available: http://www.rcn.org.uk/development/practice/infection_control. Last accessed 20th October 2013. Stelfox, H. (2003). Safety of Patients Isolated for Infection Control. The Journal of the American Medical Association. 290 (14), p1. Walker-Barrs, A. (July 2000). Hand washing: Breaking the Chain of Infection. Available: http://www.infectioncontroltoday.com/articles/2000/07/handwashing-breaking-the-chain-of-infection.aspx. Last accessed 18th October 2013. Ward, D. (2004). Infection control: reducing the psychological effects of isolation. Available: http://www.internurse.com/cgi-bin/go.pl/library/article.cgi?uid =5527;article=BJN_9_3_162_170;format=html. Last accessed 2nd November 2013.

Treetop Forest Products Ltd

Marketing: In business, firm marketing generates the revenues that the financial people manage and the production people use in creating goods and services. The challenge that faces marketing is to generate those revenues by satisfying customers’ wants at a profit and in a socially responsible manner. However, marketing is not limited to business organizations.Whenever we try to persuade somebody to do something: donate to RED CROSS, not to litter the highways, save energy, vote for candidate, we are engaging in marketing; thus marketing has a broad societal meaning and it is applicable not only for profit making but also for not profit organizations. Many scholars define marketing as follows: 1. According to American Marketing Association, marketing is defined as the performance of business activities that direct the flow of goods and services from producers to consumers or users. . According to William J. Stanton, Marketing is a system of business activities designed to plan , price, promote and distribute want satisfying goods and services to present and potential customers. 3. According to Evans and Berman, Marketing is the anticipation, stimulation, facilitation, regulation and satisfaction of consumer and public’s demand for products, services, organizations, people, places, and ideas through the exchange process. 4.According to Philip Kotler, Marketing is a social and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating and exchanging products and value with others. Generally, the definition of marketing can be grouped in to two: classical (narrow) definition and modern (broad) definition. Classical Definition: In classical terms marketing can be defined as the performance of business activities that direct the flow of goods and services from producers to consumers. This definition is too narrow to describe marketing.It emphasizes the distribution aspect of marketing. Modern Definition: In broade r terms marketing is defined as a system of business activities designed to plan, price, distribute and promote want satisfying products (goods and services) to present and potential customers. In marketing, there are combinations of activities, which start before the creation of a product and don’t end until customers are satisfied. Therefore, product planning, pricing, distribution and promotion are the main activities performed in marketing.Marketing includes anticipating demand, which requires a firm to do customer research on a regular bases so that it develops and introduces products that are desired by consumers, Management of demand which consists of stimulation, facilitation, and regulation of tasks; and satisfaction of demand which involves actual performance, safety, availability of options, after sale service and other factors. From the above discussions, we can conclude the following about marketing: a. Marketing is the business activity concerned with the flow o f goods and services from producers to consumers. . Marketing generates and facilitates exchange c. The concept of marketing lies on needs, wants, and demands of customers. d. Marketing is greater than selling. e. Marketing is an integrated activity. f. Marketing is concerned with customer satisfaction. MARKETING FUNCTIONS The following are the basic marketing functions: 1. Environmental Analysis and Marketing Research: Involves monitoring and adapting to external factors that affect success or failures, such as the economy and competition; and collecting data to resolve specific marketing issues. 2. Consumer Analysis:Involves examining and evaluating customer characteristics, needs, and purchase processes and selecting the group of consumers at which to aim marketing efforts. 3. Product Planning: ( including goods, services and ideas) Involves developing and maintaining products, product assortments, product images, brands, and packaging, and optional features; and deleting falteri ng products. 4. Distribution Planning: Involves establishing relations with distribution-channel intermediaries, physical distribution, inventory management, warehousing, transportation, the allocation of goods and services, wholesaling and retailing 5.Promotion Planning: Involves communicating with customers, the general public and others through some form of advertising, publicity, personal selling, and/or sales promotion. 6. Price Planning: Involves determining price levels and ranges, price techniques, terms of purchase, price adjustments, and the use of price as an active or passive factor. 7. Broadening the organizations' /individuals' scope: Involves deciding on the emphasis to place, as well as the approach to take, on international marketing, service/ -non-profit marketing and societal issues. 8. Marketing Management:Involves planning, implementation, and controlling the marketing program (strategy) and individual marketing functions; and appraising the risks and benefits i n decision making. According to W. J. Stanton and McKarthy, there are eight economic activities in marketing that are broadly classified into three: 1. Exchange: -Buying -Selling 2. Physical Distribution – Transportation – Storage 3. Facilitating /Auxiliary/ – Financing – Marketing research and information – Risk bearing – Product standardization 1) Exchange: It is the process by which parties provide something of value to one another to satisfy the needs of each.The seller provides a needed product Goods Services Seller Buyer Money Credit The buyer offers something in return a) Buying: It is acquisition and procurement of goods for eventual resale or for production of other goods or rendering of services. b) Selling: It is not only just to make sales but also to find buyers, stimulate them, and provide advice and service to buyers. It involves advertisement, personal selling, customer service, publicity, etc. 2) Physical Distribution: Refer s to handling and movement of goods from production area to market center.It consists of a) Storage: It provides proper handling and storage of goods until they are demanded and sold. b) Transportation: It is the shipment and movement of goods from their manufacturing place to the market center /place of sale/. It enables to make goods reachable to the consumers. 3) Facilitating Function /Auxiliary Function: these are functions that facilitate and assist the proper performance of other functions of marketing. It encompasses a) Financing: To carry out business operations smoothly, it requires finance or money. Marketing as a major business activity, leads us to the need for money or finance.Without it, organizations are unable to schedule their operations. The activity of financing involves the proper handling and management of the inflow and outflow of money. Accordingly, finance is defined as the management function, which involves effectively obtaining and using money. Sources of finance include revenue from sale of company products and services, rental of business properties, from sale of stock, or from loan and credit agencies. b) Market Research and information: Managers of businesses do not make decisions on the basis of common sense or intuition. They require information.Therefore, to make marketing decisions and to design effective marketing policies, managers should get information regarding tests, preferences, attitudes and needs of customers; position of competitors, capacity of suppliers and creditors. For the success of business, market research is an important activity that involves gathering, analyzing, and interpretation of data collected regarding the needs of consumers. c) Risk Bearing: Business organizations when they are established, it is with the objective of getting profit, expansion, growth, etc. Nevertheless, they fail to achieve their objectives because of uncertainty of the future.Hence, the chance or the possibility of loss that bus iness face is known as RISK. d) Product standardization and Grading: These are facilitating functions that are used to identify the quantity and quality of production. When goods are standardized and graded neither the buyer nor the seller is required to check each and every part of the product. It saves the time of both buyers & sellers. Standardization enables customers to know that there is always definite or standard quality in a particular package; and grading indicates that a package labeled with grades A, B, or C are always uniform and the same everywhere and ever time.The field of marketing is a crucial one for several reasons: it stimulates demand; a large number of people are employed on marketing positions; it supports entire industries such as advertising and marketing research; all people are consumers in some situations; it is necessary to use scarce resources efficiently; it impacts on people's beliefs and life styles; and it influences the quality of our lives. The s cope of marketing is quite broad and diversified. To perform the marketing functions, marketing Performers are required and they are organizations or individuals that undertake one or more marketing functions.They include manufacturers, service providers, wholesalers, retailers, marketing specialists, and organizational and final consumers. Each performer has a different role. One party usually does not perform all the functions. This is due to costs, assortment requirements, specialized abilities, company size, established methods of distribution, and consumer interests. TASKS OF MARKETING MANAGEMENT Marketing managers in different organizations might face any of the following states of demand. The marketing task is to manage demand effectively. The various states of demand and the corresponding marketing management task according to P.Kotler are the following: 1. Negative demand: This is a state in which all or the major parts of the society, dislikes the product and may even pay a price to avoid it. Examples are vaccination, alcoholic employees, dental work, and seat belts. The corresponding marketing task is to analyze why the market dislikes the product and whether product redesign, lower price, or more positive promotion can change the consumer attitudes. This marketing task or activity is known as CONVERSIONAL marketing which tries to change people’s want rather than serve their wants. . No demand: This is a case where target customers may be uninterested in or indifferent to a particular product. For example, farmers may not know about a new farming method; college students may not be interested in taking foreign language courses. Marketing managers are concerned with finding ways to connect the product’s benefits with the user’s needs and interests. This marketing task is known as STIMULATIONAL marketing; it tries to stimulate a want for an object in people who initially have no knowledge or interest in the product 3.Latent demand : Consumers have a want that is not satisfied by any existing product or service. This state of demand where many customers share a strong need for something that does not exist in the form of actual product is called LATENT demand. Examples include the need for harmless cigarettes, more fuel-efficient cars, etc. In this case, marketing managers respond by trying and developing effective goods and services that will satisfy the demand through analysis and measurement of the potential market.The marketing task is called DEVELOPMENTAL marketing and its task is to measure the size of the potential market and trying to develop a new product or service that would satisfy the demand. 4. Falling demand: Sooner or later, every organization faces falling demand for one or more of its products. For example, churches have seen their membership decline, and private colleges have seen fewer applications. The marketer must find the causes of market decline and re-stimulate demand by finding new m arkets, changing product features, or creating more effective communication and the marketing task is REMARKETING. . Irregular demand: It is a state in which the timing pattern of demand is marked by seasonal and volatile fluctuations causing problems of idle capacity and overworked. For example museums are under-visited during weekdays and overworked during weekends. The corresponding marketing task is SYNCHROMARKETING, i. e. , to find ways to alter the time pattern of demand through flexible pricing, promotion and other incentives so that it will better match the time pattern of supply. 6. Full demand: The organization has just the amount of demand it wants and can handle.It is a state where the current level and timing of demand is equal to the desired level and timing of demand. The marketing task is MAINTENANCE marketing and is designed to maintain the current level of demand against changing consumer preferences. The organization maintains quality, and continually measures sat isfaction to make sure it is doing a good job. 7. Overfull demand: It is a state in which demand is higher than the company can or wants to handle. The marketing task is called DEMARKETING and its task is finding ways to reduce the demand temporarily, or permanently.De-marketing involves such actions as raising prices and reducing promotion and service. It does not aim to destroy demand, but only to reduce it. It calls for using normal marketing tools in reverse. 8. Unwhole-Some demand: Unwholesome products such as cigarettes, alcohol, and hard drugs will attract organized effort to destroy the demand or interest in particular product or service. The corresponding marketing task is known as COUNTERMARKETING it is a difficult task in that the aim is to get people who like something to give it up. Marketing manager cope with these tasks by arrying out marketing research, planning, implementation and control. The demand levels and corresponding marketing tasks are summarized as follows : State of demand| Marketing task| Formal Name| 1. | Negative demand| Disabuse demand| Conversional marketing| 2. | No demand| Create demand| Stimulation Marketing| 3. | Latent demand| Develop demand| Developmental marketing| 4. | Falling demand| Revitalized demand| Remarketing marketing| 5. | Irregular demand| Synchronize demand| Synchro-marketing| 6. | Full demand| Maintain| Maintenance marketing| 7. Overfull demand| Reduce demand| Demarketing marketing| 8. | Unwholesome demand| Destroy demand| Counter marketing| 2. 3. MARKETING MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS We have described marketing management, as the conscious effort to achieve desired exchange outcomes with target markets. Now we ask what philosophy should guide these marketing efforts? What weights should be given to the interests of the organization, the customers and society? Very often these interests conflict. Clearly, marketing activities should be carried out under a clear philosophy of efficient, effective, and responsible mark eting.There are five competing concepts under which organizations conduct their marketing activity. 1. The production concept: This concept holds that consumers will favor those products that are widely available and low in cost. Management of production oriented organization concentrates on achieving high production efficiently and wide distribution coverage. Organizations that appreciate this concept assume that consumers like products that are widely available and accessible at low cost. The production concept is one of the oldest concepts guiding sellers.The assumption that consumers are primarily interested in product availability and low price holds in at least two types of situations. The first is where the demand for a product exceeds supply as in many Third World countries. Here consumers are more interested in obtaining the product than in its fine points. The suppliers will concentrate on finding ways to increase production. The second situation is where the productâ€⠄¢s cost is high and has to be brought down through increased productivity to expand the market.Texas instruments provides a contemporary example of the production concept: Texas Instruments is the leading American exponent of the â€Å"get-out production, cut the price† philosophy. Ford put all of his talent into perfecting the mass production of automobile to be down their instruments all of its efforts in building production volume and improving technology in order to bring down costs. It uses its lower costs to cut process and expand the market size. It strives to achieve the dominant position in its markets.To Texas Instruments, marketing primarily means one thing bringing down the price to buyers; this orientation has also been a key strategy of many Japanese companies. 2. The product concept: Under this concept, marketing managers assume that consumers will prefer those products that offer (provide) the most quality, performance, with good features. Managers in this pr oduct-oriented organizations focus their energy on making quality products and improving them over time. These managers assume that buyers admire well-made products and can select, purchase and appreciate product quality.Products oriented companies often design their product with little or no customer input. These managers are caught up in a love affair with their product and fail to appreciate that the market may be less â€Å"turned on. † They trust that their engineers will know how to design or improve the product. Too often they will not even examine competitors products because â€Å"they were not invented here. † A General Motors executive said years ago† â€Å"How can the public know what kind of car they want until they see what is available? † GM’s designers would develop plant for a new car. Then manufacturing would make it.Then the finance department would price it. Finally, marketing and sales would try to sell it. GM failed to ask cust omers what they wanted and never brought in the marketing people at the beginning to help figure out what kind of car would sell. The product concept leads to â€Å"marketing myopia† a focus on the product greater than on the customer’s need. Railroad management thought that users wanted trains rather than transportation and overlooked the growing challenge of the airlines, buses, trucks, and automobiles. Churches and the post office all assume that they are offering the public the right product and wonder why their sales falter.These organizations too often are looking into a mirror when they should be looking out the window. 3. The Selling concept: Under this philosophy/concept/, marketing managers assume that consumers purchase products if the organization undertakes an aggressive selling and promotion effort. Therefore, firms emphasize and direct their effort on promotion and selling of their products. Most firms practice the selling concept when they introduce new products and when they have over capacity. The selling concept holds that consumers, if left alone, will ordinarily not buy enough of the organization’s products.The organization must therefore undertake an aggressive selling effort. The concept assumes that consumers typically show buying inertia or resistance and have to be coaxed into buying, and that the company has available a whole battery of effective selling and promotion tools to stimulate more buying. The selling concept is practiced most aggressively with â€Å"unsought goods,† those goods that buyers normally do not think of buying such as insurance, encyclopedias, and funeral plots. These industries have perfected various sales techniques to locate prospects and hard sell them on product benefits.Most firms practice the selling concept when they have over capacity. Their aim is to sell what they make rather than make what the market wants. In modern industrial economies, productive capacity has been built up to a point where most markets are buyer markets (i. e. , the buyers are dominant), and sellers have to scramble hard for customers. Prospects are bombarded with television commercials, newspaper ads, direct mail, and sales calls. At every turn, someone is trying to sell something. As a result, the public identifies marketing with hard selling and advertising. 4.The Marketing Concept: The marketing concept is different from the above three concepts. Managers under this concept assumes that the key to achieving organizational goals is based on the determination of the needs and wants of consumers and delivering or providing the desired satisfaction more efficiently, and effectively, than competitors. When we compare the marketing concept with the selling concept, the selling concept focuses on the needs of the seller; the marketing concept focuses on the needs of the buyer. Selling concept focuses on the needs of the seller; marketing on the needs of the buyer.Selling is preoccupi ed with the seller’s need to convert his product into cash. Marketing is preoccupied with the idea of satisfying the customers’ needs of the product and the whole cluster of things associated by creating and delivering the product. The marketing concept rests on four main pillars, namely target market, customer needs, coordinated marketing, and profitability. These are shown in figure below – The selling concept Starting pointFocusMeans Ends FactoryProductsSelling ; Profits throughpromotion sales volume The marketing concept Starting point focus meansEndsTarget market Customer CoordinatedProfits through Needs marketingCustomer Satisfaction Here we examine how each pillar of the marketing concept contributes to more marketing that is effective. i. TARGET MARKET: No company can operate in every market and satisfy every need. Nor can it even do a good job within one broad market. Companies do best when define their target market (s) carefully and prepare a tailored marketing program. An auto manufacture can think of designing passenger cars, station wagons, sports carts, and luxury. But this thinking is less precise than defining a customer target group.One Japanese carmaker is designing a car for the career woman, and it will have many features that male-dominated cars don’t have. Another Japanese carmaker is designing a car for the â€Å" town man,† the young person who needs to get about town and park easily. In each, the company has clarified a target market, and this will greatly influence the car design. Societal Marketing Concept: It holds that the organization should determine the needs, wants, and interests of the target markets and deliver the desired satisfaction more effectively and efficiently than competitors in a way that maintains or improves the customer’s and the ociety’s well-being. The societal marketing concept calls upon marketers to balance three considerations in setting their marketing poli cies. Originally, companies based their marketing decisions largely on short-run company profit. Overtime, companies began to recognize the long-run importance of satisfying consumer wants, and introduced the marketing concept. Now they are beginning to think of society’s interests when making decisions. The societal marketing concept calls for balancing all three considerations-company profits, consumer wants, and society’s interests.

Why There Would Be No People Without Plants Essay

Why There Would Be No People Without Plants - Essay Example Both the plants and human beings are said to be living in a balanced state together. The plants use the carbon dioxide released by the human beings to their advantage and release oxygen. The plants have leaves which have a structure known as stomata. This stomata is a microscopic structure which helps in taking carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen in the environment. Stomata ensure that the needs of the plants are fulfilled by taking in the necessary amount of gases and elements. These stomata are also referred to as the mouth of the plants because it helps in the intake of water, carbon dioxide and oxygen as necessary. It also helps in serving food to the plants by converting carbon dioxide into sugar via the process of photosynthesis. This essay would revolve around the significance of plants in the lives of the human beings (Smith 2010; Corner 1966). Plants undergo different processes to produce oxygen and these processes also help to make food for the plants themselves. While carbon dioxide is converted into sugar by the plants the process of transpiration also takes place simultaneously to release water vapors. Transpiration helps the plant to breathe in carbon dioxide because of the water that it releases. Light is also necessary for plants to produce food and oxygen. In the world today different gases exist together in the atmosphere including oxygen and carbon dioxide. It is necessary that these gases are balanced together so that human beings can exist. Plants balance these gases in the environment by the process of photosynthesis and respiration. In night when the plants do not have enough light they start producing carbon dioxide and take in oxygen. This helps to balance the gases in the environment and thus help the human beings to exist (Corner 1966). At many instances people tend to ask as to why do human beings really need oxygen for life. The answer for it can be found in the basic physiology of the human body. As human beings inhale

Why is the study of political science imperative for an educated human Essay

Why is the study of political science imperative for an educated human being in society - Essay Example According to Marcus, â€Å"democracy, bureaucracy, autocracy, amongst others formulates basic forms of government†. This is a vivid implication that politics qualifies as a science. Scholars establish diverse ideologies and theories to articulate the dynamics of politics. Marcus also asserts that â€Å"Politics keep changing with in different times.† In this case, political science has immense importance towards every elite in society. The study is imperative to the elites in diverse ways. In the art of politics, people must exceed the figure of two. This implicates that interactions amongst two or more individuals comprise politics. In definition, politics entails an art of influence within a civic level (Marcus, 2010). The influence may as well infiltrate to the individual level. Therefore, the study of political science is imperative to the elites upon understanding its dynamics and nature. Political science is imperative to educated individuals in diverse ways. Marc us quotes that â€Å"Scholars in political science pursue knowledge in politics†. This knowledge accumulates within them to propagate comprehensive understanding of the political dynamics. Therefore, this knowledge inculcates immense capacity towards the scholars. In this case, political science scholars are in a capacity to give a comprehensive and logical account of the basic changes (Marcus, 2010).

Why do you think different administrations differ so greatly on this Essay

Why do you think different administrations differ so greatly on this point - Essay Example The American expansion was a strategy to show the right and anyone who opposed the Americans was considered to be wrong. Roosevelt saw that there was no chance for the white man to eliminate the dark race, hence opted to have them under control and tried to change their culture like in China and India. He was confident that other people could not overpower the whites in their own country in the temperate zone. He felt that the Chinese will push the Western European out of indo-China. At the time, many advocates of racism didn’t see the people as primitive, but regarded them as inferior. For having yellow skin, one was considered inferior. The racial differences had become greater and there was no hope of modernizing China. He also believed that Africans would become civilized or become a danger to the white race. Nevertheless, the Americans believed that the Negroes, Filipinos and Chinese could develop like the white man. Roosevelt believed that an individual member of a particular race could attain qualities superior to those of other members of the backward society. He also firmly believed and stated that the spread of English-speaking people meant an achievement to the world’s peace and the spread of civilization. This belief controlled his views on foreign policy. He stated that peace can’t be achieved until the nations are civilized. This meant that co-operation of the civilized people shaped the earth. Roosevelt associated superior civilization with the English-speaking people. He advocated for many virtues and power to defend ones effectiveness, and he spread the ability to ensure that there is an orderly and democratic government. Many viewed England as a civilized nation and one that should have overthrown the Mahdists in Sudan. England rule in India and Egypt had benefited it, as well as India and Egypt as they acquired civilization (Beale 45). Roosevelt stated that the English speaking race should control South Africa and that the

HIST 2112 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

HIST 2112 - Essay Example While industry had been around for quite a while before the turn of the century, this was the first time it became nearly impossible to survive in a purely rural environment. At first, many skilled workers joined unions in an attempt to save their jobs from unskilled machine workers who could do the exact same work in a factory as them for cheaper and more quickly. This did not last long, however, as more cooperation was needed for success. Often times, the actions of these unions would lead to violence, which means more problems would be caused by their protests than would be solved by them. The Coal Strikes between 1900 and 1902 became somewhat of a national crisis, as coal was a necessary commodity. The workers did gain higher wages and less hours with these strikes, although the government refused to admit that the union had anything to do with this. As time moved on, workers attempted to create a union for all to be a part of, which would end the wage system and would give the w orkers the power. These attempts were suppressed by the capitalists, however, as they knew that paying too much in wages would put a damper on the significant profits they were making during this time period. The entrepreneurs got the government involved in these disputes in order to protect their interests. The government knew that it was in its best interests to keep the capitalist entrepreneurs happy, so it did whatever it could to prevent the workers from winning these disputes. These unions were, however, important because they allowed for wages to rise and hours worked to fall for skilled workers in the United States. The lives of African Americans between 1877 and 1928 were transitional, as African Americans began to search for a niche in American society. In 1877, North troops left the South, which meant that former African American slaves in the South could no longer rely on them for political protection. Many issues

Globalizm Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Globalizm - Essay Example It is the process that has a lot of effect on life and economic development of the world and on the overall well-being of humans in all the societies of the world. (Manfred 2003, p. 97) Globalism is therefore the phenomenon that transforms some things from local to global ones. It is the unification of the whole world into a single society that is judged by the same benchmark in all the spheres of life. Though it has found most of its definition on the economic front, it has lot of effect of the social cultural life of the people. However in our real definition, Globalism and globalization does not mean the same thing. Though they may be both referring to the concept of bringing the world closer, there is a difference in the application of the two terms. Globalism describes the realism of interconnecting the world. This means that it is the aspect of one region being interconnected to the rest of the world and in reference to the world it is the aspect of having the entire world becoming interconnected. Globalization on the other hand can be described as the speed at which these connections increase or the speed at which these connections decreases. ... In this paper will apply the two terms to mean the same aspect of interconnecting the world to a global village. (Nye, 2002) Globalism describes a world that is characterised by interconnected networks which reduces the distance between continents. It understands all the interconnection of the modern world and also highlights all the patterns underlying most of these connections. On the other hand globalisation refers to the forces and the dynamisms of the changes that are taking place in the world that shapes these interconnections. Globalism is also used in other instances to describe the positive aspect of the process of globalization. In this case it is opposed to mundialism which can be described as anti globalisation. Therefore Globalism can also be taken as an aspect of globalization which supports the need to have the process take root in the world as it portray the pro-globalization views. (i) Origin The origin of the terms can be traced back to a long time ago but the real experience of the term surfaced in the 1980s, although the concept took root in the world in the 1990s and late 1980s. However the earliest written concept globalisation can be traced to 1897 when Russell described corporate giants referring to corporations which were spreading their wings beyond their mother locations. Globalisation can be traced back to early 16th century when Portuguese explores began to find sea routes which could be used for trade. This apparently marked the beginning of Globalism although it has become a familiar subject of interest and study in the recent past. What we call globalism today can be seen as nothing but more of a modern globalism which has been marked by post-second world war events.

Treadway Tire Company Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Treadway Tire Company - Case Study Example This high level of dissatisfaction by the line-foreman segment was being manifested through an increased trend of employee turnover. In 2007 alone 23 line-foremen left the Lima plant both voluntarily and involuntarily. This high turnover has negatively implications on the plant’s productivity and cost. It prevents the Lima tire plant from realizing its potential of being Treadway’s lowest cost producer and number one plant for productivity in North America. Four elements of the work system that contribute towards the problems at Treadway are: (1) inadequate training and development for new hires; (2) poor communication from upper management; (3) a poor organizational and/or power structure; and (4) a performance review system. From the case it is clear that for one to effectively perform the duty of a line foremac one needed skills in areas such as understanding union contracts, employee and production scheduling, pay and so on. However, at Treadway’s Lima plant new line foremen received only informal training, which was conducted at the discretion of the general supervisor and area manager (Skinner and Beckham 5). This situation is aggravated by the poor or limited communication between upper management and line-foremen segment. In such a scenario it would not be far-fetched to expect the quality of this informal training to be inadequate. The line foremen were expected to take charge of the hourly employees and were held responsible over the hourly-employees’ actions yet they lacked the authority needed to do so. This reflects a poor power structure – which reflects poor organizational structure. In a good organizational structure the person who bears responsibility has to be given the authority to perform whatever needs to be done with regards to that responsibility. This in a way made line-foremen to be undermined by their charges. Lastly, we are informed that in order to get a good review, line foremen were expected to meet targets without

Film Analysis - The Truman Show Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Film Analysis - The Truman Show - Essay Example These different stages in the story of a drama are organized in to a sequence by the construction of certain devises called as ‘narrative’.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is the narrative that defines a story in terms of space and time. It also decides and structures the dramatic elements and the events of the story. The narrative can also manipulate the awareness of audience by using a series of â€Å"co-creative techniques† such as â€Å"flashbacks, replays of action, slow motion, speeding up, jumping between places and times for constructing the story world for specific effects† (Schmidt 2011). There exist some theories that govern the narrative that share some links with the theories of drama. Both the narrative and the drama draw their theories from Aristotle’s â€Å"Poetics†, where he explains that topics such as â€Å"character, plot, beginnings and endings, poetic justice, and the goals of representation, are as re levant to narrative theory as to a poetics of drama†. In the modern times, however, most theorists follow the view of Roland Barthes who stated that â€Å"narrative is present in myth, legend, fable, tale, novella, epic, history, tragedy, drama, comedy, mime, painting [think of Carpaccio's Saint Ursula], stained glass windows, cinema, comics, news item, conversation" (Richardson  2012).  Ã‚  Ã‚   Though there are similarities in the literary and filmic narratives, there exist diverse dissimilarities when the narrative strategy is articulated through the medium of films. Since films use various cinematographic modes for the aesthetic expression of narrative, the concept of generalization that rules a dramatic film and a literary text gets obscured. The filmic... This study is an analysis of a drama film, â€Å"The Truman Show† and the narrative constructed in it. "The Truman Show" (1998) is an American drama film directed by Peter SWeir and written by Andrew M. Niccol. The film has a voyeuristic setting that allows its viewers to gaze upon the everyday life of Truman. A few close-up shots of the producers and the main characters of the Show provide an insight as well as the base for the main plot of the film, which is Truman's life. The time marker and the show credits are inserted in the Show while allowing the show viewers to watch their star Truman. Thus, the filmic audiences are provided with a 'window within a window' style of spectatorship. For instance, Truman is being gazed by the hidden camera in Meryl's necklace; his neighbors, friends and colleagues; the actors on the set; the production crew; the 'global' audience members of the television show on the film set; the real film spectators in the theaters; and finally the gaze effected by the subjectivity and reflexivity of the narrative text. Reality is a perception created by the temporal and spatial continuum. A successive and mutual blending of images gives these images a chronological function. In this film, the representation of reality is done not by the conventional integration or dissociation of time and space and image and sound. The subject of the show, Truman’s life, is a continuum in the electronic space, for the broadcast viewers. Truman's life, like any theater performance, is a staged performance by a group of artists who plays their roles to perfection.

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 170

Assignment Example Its Canadian culture has led to loyalty of its customers, strategy that has made it difficult for other coffee houses such as Starbucks to make it in the Canadian Market. Tim Horton’s culture has been able to adapt more in its local market as compared to international markets. The main reason for its adaptation strategies is the ethics of its culture locally leading to customer preference and loyalty. According to research, it has the largest customer share in Canada despite the entry of other giant rivals such as Starbucks and Burgerking. Starbucks, on the other hand, is a coffeehouse chain based in America with its headquarters in Washington. The largest share of its market is found in the United States where its corporate culture has grown strong since its foundation in the late 1970s. Its capital and asset accumulation has led to its international infiltration in markets from all continents. It has also made entries in the Canadian market where it has faced competition from Tim Hortons. Its ethics and customer relations have led to sales acceptance and sales in most international markets where customers are after its trademark. Starbucks has also been involved in environmental projects such as recycling leading to improvements in its corporate culture. Starbucks is the better performer depending on its capital accumulation and market share. Tim Hortons only has its markets in the U.S, Persian Gulf and Canada while Starbucks has expanded to all continents with over 13,000 units worldwide. Its wide variety of products has led to an increase in sales unlike Tim Hortons that has not diversified its products. However, Tim Hortons merger with Burgerking will lead to accumulation of capital that may lead to its expansion and increased performance. Conclusion on the best performer has been based on assets, capital accumulation and market share. Starbucks has higher

Modern Irony Essay Example for Free

Modern Irony Essay Since the beginning of time, man has attempted to unravel the seemingly infinite mysteries of life. The English playwright Tom Stoppard has written plays that address the existence of fate (or a predestined outcome for every human being) and controlling ones own destiny. His plays also deal with the many other uncertainties that arise during a normal persons life; such as sex, how we know things, etc. (Tom Stoppard) Stoppards utilization of satire and drawn parallels mirror the image of lifes faults and intricacies. His plays serve to show people the humor and irony that life presents. During the time that Stoppard wrote his first play, Rosencrantz and Guildenstein, society was experiencing a social upheaval. The late sixties was a time of experimentation and existentialism. People were asking questions about their very existence in a way never before seen. In this climate, Stoppard saw the opportunity to begin writing plays that dealt with the issues of the time (Overview of Tom Stoppard). He took a whimsical spin though, on the method in which he delivered it. He embarked on the continuing journey of a great literary tradition, but diverged from its path by ridiculing it. His desire to write plays was not a spontaneous venture; during this era, many people wanted to express their thoughts and feelings, and plays were a common medium. Stoppard observed this and pondered if success and knowledge could be his as well. The general question being asked around this time was Why are we here? Man has always sought an answer to this question, but now more than ever was it expressed in literature and plays. Stoppards craft shows a propensity for humor, which offers a more light-hearted viewpoint of this previously serious and mundane subject. Stoppard asks the question of not only Why are we here? but also How are we here? as well. He explores the intricacies of life in an attempt to derive a meaning. His comical touch alleviates the heavy association of philosophy though. Whether or not his question is answered is secondary to the method in which we view it. In Stoppards eyes, it is more important to live rather than to comprehend why we live. This approach brought fanfare to Stoppard, as society saw his style as fresh; and a tangible device to which they could relate. Literary history has had a heavy impact on Stoppards method and conceptual presentation. He admits to being swooned by such masterpieces as Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett, and The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufock by T. S. Elliot. The ideas that he extracted from these artists and their works helped him divulge his own style to which he could further literature. A parallel may be drawn between Waiting for Godot and Stoppards Rosencrantz and Guildenstein are Dead. Both works feature two men, and their journey in existentialism. Becketts version has them waiting for a surreal character (Godot) that, in the end, never appears. The characters are portrayed as confused, and the play takes on an air of severe depression. The play is very much an appeal to the audience, as they too are overcome by this depression. The characters slowly fade away, emotionless and unexcitable. Stoppards version though has his characters embark on a journey; a fruitless journey, but a goal to meet none the less. Beckett disarms his audience, while Stoppard embraces them into his play; making the audience feel at home and comfortable. Stoppard diffuses the rather heavy atmosphere belied by Beckett with satire and a whimsical wit. For example, In Rosencrantz and Guildenstein are Dead, Stoppard portrays the idea of death as a game. He does this in an attempt to show the audience that it is not to be feared. He achieves this by his satirical depiction of the internal play within Hamlet by Shakespeare. The characters in the play perish, and then the actual characters die in the exact same manner. The audience can identify with death, as all humans are concerned with their own demise. They take away though, a much less serious approach in viewing it. The other author, Elliot, often depicted his characters as stumbling and indecisive. One of his most famous works, The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, deals with a man who is enamored with the variables and uncertainties of approaching a woman that he admires. In the poem, Prufrock realizes that only he cares about his decision, and whether he chooses to pursue her or not, will not matter. He sees himself as part of his own world; in which he is the sole occupant. He, sadly, is only coherent enough in his world though to realize how much he is potentially missing by not being completely immersed in it. He cannot solve this problem though, and continues wandering and pondering till the end of time. Stoppard took away from Elliot a similar stance to character development. He portrays his characters as aware, but not completely in tune with their surroundings. The effect is one of dismay, but comical as well. Stoppards portrayal is more humorous in nature, displaying them as bungling and unresponsive. This is exemplified in his play, Rosencrantz and Guildenstein are Dead. His characters attempt to divulge the plan and their purpose as designated by the King (Claudius), but are unable to fully grasp its meaning. These literary greats do not contribute the fabulous humor that Stoppard has developed though. His humorous elements can best be equated to his passion for the Theatre of the Absurd. This type of theater came into popularity during the 1950s and 1960s; and was applied to plays that portrayed the human situation without purpose and with absurd plot elements. This form was a reemergence of an attempt towards awareness of mans purpose in life; the sense of wonder that man has always had concerning how things work and why. In some respect, it was anti-theater, as it went against the basic premise of regular theater. It was illogical and usually had very little or no plot (Culik). Stoppards fascination with this art form had a profound impact on his own personal style. Sigmund Freud, a proponent of the Absurd, said, In trying to burst the bounds of logic and language, the absurd theater is trying to shatter the enclosing walls of the human condition itself. (Culik) This confirms the spatial concepts that the theater was attempting to portray, and Stoppards comedic element is based upon this illogical and removed nature. The play Rosencrantz and Guildenstein are Dead is a satirical look upon the much more staunch play Hamlet. It delves into the lives of two supporting characters named Rosencrantz and Guildenstein. The characters unimportance is exemplified in the play by their lack of understanding and baffling thought patterns. This play shows Stoppards portrayal of artificiality of theater. The performance is not about the actual play, but the context of the play; the idea of attending the performance. The characters appeal directly to the audience, instead of becoming immersed in its story and plot. The effect is comical, as the play begins with them merely spinning coins and making bizarre implications towards the audience. Rosencrantz has spun the coin and received heads nearly 85 times. His humorous portrayal of the law of averages is his justification for his luck. This is the plays first look into why things happen. The characters are unable to come to a proper conclusion though; and the path that Rosencrantz begins upon (the law of averages) cannot be farther removed from the truth. The play continues with these hilarious situations, finally having the pair receive their mission from Claudius the King. The pair ponders why they have received the mission, and why they must complete it. Stoppard constantly asserts that a play is being read. ; instead of allowing the reader to delve into a story. He makes the reader think of Hamlet, and its tragic implications; and applies a humorous tone to it. In the end of the play, Rosencrantz and Guildenstein are supposedly murdered (the English king is instructed to execute them, but their actual deaths are not witnessed), but instead of a grand exit, they merely fade away. Stoppard shows through this that the characters had served only a menial and insignificant purpose. The reader is unable to sympathize with the characters demise, as the play is portrayed with a comical tone. This disservice to death with satire is both eye widening and thought provoking. A person is assaulted with the moral implications of death, instead of offering a deaf sympathy to the characters grief. Stoppards ability to allow the playgoers to analyze what they feel is his greatest achievement in the work; not the story itself. Stoppards play Arcadia is another intelligent play that provokes the reader to appraise mans life long debacles. In the play, the characters attempt to grasp the mysteries of sex, and a path towards knowledge that leads to an understanding of the future. The latter is portrayed as an equation developed by Thomasina, in an attempt to control her own destiny. Her professor, Septimus, also contributes to the equation by way of a lesson to his student, Thomasina. He explains to her that the loss of knowledge isnt the end of the world; as it is rediscovered eventually in the future. This subject is an explanation of humanitys technological progression and our knowledge. The play attempts to allow the reader to grasp the many unknown or misunderstood concepts in life. Mysteries such as sex can only be acquired through practice and progression of time. Stoppard appeals to the general public that things cannot be instantly understood; they must be studied and experimented with to fully grasp the full meaning. These mysteries will eventually be solved, but it shall take time and patience; nothing is instantaneous in life. Stoppards inclusion of Thomasinas equation is both humorous and practical in its implication. Thomasinas goal was to create an equation that could more or less tell the future. It is humorous to surmise that a simple equation can predict the future with numbers. The limitless variables and uncertainties in life will forever impede such an advancement. Stoppard attempts to explain that life itself is intangible; it can neither be predicted nor reduced to a simple equation. Stoppards plays contain many useful outlooks on how a person should view their life on earth. People are always concerned with the future and their own death (and when it will occur). Stoppard believes that man shouldnt view life with such a critical eye; and instead should accept certain facts to be true. Man is powerless concerning the ability to control life. There are many uncertainties in life that are both humorous and infinitely escapable to the human mind. His plays show inept characters driven into the ground by their consumption of the study of life. Stoppard suggests through his characters comical adventures that life is for living, and the consequence of a life spent longing and pondering equates to a life disenfranchised of pulp and meaning. The meaning which man longs for cannot be quantified; it must be experienced to break the surface of significance. Works Cited Stoppard, Tom. Arcadia. Stoppard, Tom. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead. Tom Stoppard. DISCovering Biography. Online Edition. Gale, 2003. Student Resource Center. Thomson Gale. 17 January 2005Â  http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/SRC

Depression Anxiety in Older Adults: Gaps in the Knowledge

Depression Anxiety in Older Adults: Gaps in the Knowledge Depression and Anxiety in Older Adults:Â  Are there gaps in current knowledge regarding diagnosis and treatment? Introduction Mental health problems in older adults can cause a massive social impact, often bringing about poor quality of life, isolation and exclusion. Depression is one of the most debilitating mental health disorders worldwide, affecting approximately 7% of the elderly population (Global Health Data Exchange, 2010). Despite this, it is also one of the most underdiagnosed and undertreated conditions in the primary care setting. Even with estimates of approximately 25% of over 65’s living in the community having depressive symptoms severe enough to warrant medical intervention, only one third discuss their symptoms with their GP. Of those that do, only 50% receive treatment as symptoms of depression within this population often coincide with other later life problems ( IAPT, 2009; World Health Organisation (WHO), 2004). Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1: Depression and Anxiety in older adults Many misconceptions surround ageing including the fact that depression is a normal part of the ageing process. Actual evidence indicates that other physical health issues often supersede the presentation of depressive symptoms in older adults which may suggest that the development of depression is highly influenced by deteriorating physical health (Baldwin, 2008; Baldwin et al, 2002). Depression may present differently in older adults in comparison to adolescents or even working age adults. Although the same disorder may be present throughout different stages of the lifespan, in older adults certain symptoms of depression may be accentuated, such as somatic or psychotic symptoms and memory complaints, or suppressed, such as the feelings of sadness, in comparison to younger people with the same disorder (Baldwin, 2008; Chiu, Tam Chiu, 2008). O’Connor et al (2001) carried out a study into ‘the influence of age on the response of major depression to electroconvulsive thera py’ and found that when confounding variables are controlled (age at the beginning of a study), there is no difference in the remission rates for depression in both younger and older adults, however, relapse rates remain higher for older adults. Backing this up, Brodaty et al (1993) conducted a qualitative naturalistic study into the prognosis of depression in older adults in comparison to younger adults and again confirmed that the prognosis and remission for depression in older adults is not significantly worse than for younger adults. However, the rigor of a qualitative naturalistic study is argued by proponents as being value-laden in nature, while criticisms of this study approach highlight it as being subjective, anecdotal and subject to researcher bias (Koch, 2006). In addition to depression, anxiety disorders are also common among older adults, often presenting as a comorbid condition. In 2007, 2.28 million people were diagnosed as having an anxiety disorder, with 13% of those individuals aged 65 and over. By 2026, the projected number of people diagnosed with an anxiety disorder is expected to rise by 12.7% to 2.56 million with the greatest increase expected to be seen in the older adult population (King’s Fund, 2008). Despite the prevalence rate, anxiety is poorly researched in comparison to other psychiatric disorders in older people (Wetherell et al, 2005). Of the anxiety disorders, phobic disorders and generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) are the two most common in older people (Bryant et al, 2008). It wasn’t until 1980 that the American Psychiatric Association (APA) published the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) 3rd Edition which introduced Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD) into the psychiatric nome nclature, distinguishing it from other anxiety disorders for the first time (APA, 1980). MCManus et al (2009) estimate that in England alone, as many as 4.4% of people in England suffer with GAD with prevalence rates between 1.2 and 2.5 times higher for women than men (Prajapati, 2012). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) has received more clinical interest lately, correlating with individuals from the Second World War, Holocaust and Vietnam Veterans reaching or being well into old age and increasing recognition of PTSD. Despite this, data relating to prevalence rates still remains limited with research tending to focus on specific populations as opposed to community figures, for example, with regards to UK war veterans, approximately 30% will develop PTSD (pickingupthepieces.org.au, 2014). Unfortunately, stigma tends to misrepresent PTSD statistics as sufferers tend not to seek diagnosis or researcher bias is present. Britt (2000) found that many service personal within the military stated that admitting to a mental health problem was not only more stigmatising that admitting to a physical health problem but they also believed it would have a more detrimental impact on their career prospects. Furthermore, Mueller (2009) conducted a study into disclosure attitudes in which it was concluded that these attitudes can strongly predict symptom severity. With this in mind, it is important to stress the importance of practicing within the limits of NMC (2008) code of conduct in which unconditional positive regards must be show by all nursing staff whilst incorporating a non-bias attitude in practice. Anxiety and depression comorbidity is well established. A longitudinal study, noted for its beneficial adaptability in enabling the researcher to look at changes over time, conducted by Balkom et al (2000) found that in a random community sample of adults (55 and older), who were diagnosed as having an anxiety disorder, 13% also met the criteria of major depressive disorder (MDD). Adding weight to the evidence of anxiety and depression comorbidity in older adults, Schaub (2000) who also conducted a longitudinal study, found that 29.4% of a sample of older adults in a German community met the criteria for a depressive disorder. Longitudinal studies are thought to vary in their validity due to the attrition of randomly assigned participants during the course of the study, thus producing a final sample that is not a true representation of the population sampled (Rivet-Amico, 2009). King-Kallimanis, Gum and Kohn (2009) examined current and lifetime comorbidity of anxiety with depression. Within a 12 month period they found 51.8% of older adults with MDD in the United States also met the diagnostic criteria for an anxiety disorder. There is evidence to suggest that the first presentation of anxiety symptoms in older adults suggests an underlying depressive disorder (Chiu et al, 2008). Unfortunately, comorbid anxiety and depression in older adults is associated with much higher risks of suicidal symptoms (Bartels et al, 2002; Lenze et al, 2000) in addition to increased reports of more severe psychiatric and somatic symptoms and poorer social functioning when compared to depression alone (Lenze et al, 2000; Schoevers et al, 2003). 2.2 Diagnosis and Screening Tools APP TO PRACTICE Dementia, along with depression and other priority mental disorders are included in the WHO Mental Health Gap Action Programme (mhGAP). This programme aims to improve care for mental, neurological and substance use disorders through providing guidance and tools to develop health services in resource poor areas. Synthesis and utilization of empirical research is an important aspect of evidence-based care. Only within the context of the holistic assessment, can the highest quality of care be achieved. References: Baldwin, R., Chiu, E., Katona, C., and Graham, N. 2002. Guidelines on depression in older people: Practising the evidence. London: Martin Dunitz Ltd. Baldwin, R. 2008. Mood disorders: depressive disorders. In: Jacob R et al, Oxford Textbook of Older Age Psychiatry. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Balkom, V., Beekman , A., de Beurs, E., et al. Comorbidity of the anxiety disorders in a community-based older population in the Netherlands [Online]. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 101(-). Pp 37–45. Available at: https://www-swetswise-com.abc.cardiff.ac.uk/FullTextProxy/swproxy?url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.coc/resolve/doi/pdf?DOI=10.1034/j.1600-0447.2000.101001037.xts=1409279416128cs=1533436201userName=0000884.ipdireciemCondId=884articleID=25446758yevoID=1585273titleID=2498remoteAddr=131.251.137.64hostType=PRO [Accessed: 29th August 2014]. Bartels, S., Coakley, E., Oxman, T., et al. 2002. Suicidal and death ideation in older primary care patients with depression, anxiety, and at-risk alcohol use. American Journal of Psychiatry.159(10) pp.417–427. Brodaty, H., Harris, L., Peters, K., Wilhelm, K., Hickie, I., Boyce, P., Mitchell, P., Parker, G., and Eyers, K. 1993. Prognosis of depression in the elderly. A comparison with younger patients [Online]. The British Journal of Psychiatry 163(-) pp589-596. Available at: http://bjp.rcpsych.org/content/163/5/589#BIBL [Accessed 27th August 2014]. Chiu, H., Tam,W., and Chiu, E. 2008. WPA educational program on depressive disorders: Depressive disorders in older persons. World Psychiatric Association (WPA). King’s Fund. 2008. Paying the price: The cost of mental health care in England to 2026 [Online]. London: King’s Fund. Available at: http://www.kingsfund.org.uk/sites/files/kf/Paying-the-Price-the-cost-of-mental-health-care-England-2026-McCrone-Dhanasiri-Patel-Knapp-Lawton-Smith-Kings-Fund-May-2008_0.pdf [Accessed: 17th August 2014]. Koch, T. 2006. Establishing rigour in qualitative research: the decision trail. Journal of Advanced Nursing 53(1) pp. 91-100 Lenze, E., Mulsant, B., Shear M, et al. 2000. Comorbid anxiety disorders in depressed elderly patients [Online]. American Journal of Psychiatry. 157(-): pp.722–728. Available at: http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org.abc.cardiff.ac.uk/data/Journals/AJP/3712/722.pdf?resultClick=3 [Accessed: 29th August 2014]. O’Connor, M., Knapp, R., Husain, M., et al. 2001. The influence of age on the response of major depression to electroconvulsive therapy: a CORE report. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry. 9(-): pp. 382–390 Rivet-Amico, K. 2009. Percent Total Attrition: A Poor Metric for Study Rigor in Hosted Intervention Designs [Online]. American Journal of Public Health 99(9): pp 1567-1575. Available at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2724469/ [Accessed 22nd August 2014]. Schaub, R., Linden, M. 2000. Anxiety and anxiety disorders in the old and very old—results from the Berlin Aging Study (BASE) [Online]. Comprehensive Psychiatry. 41(-) pp 48–54. Available at: http://ac.els-cdn.com.abc.cardiff.ac.uk/S0010440X00800085/1-s2.0-S0010440X00800085-main.pdf?_tid=25fb884e-2f25-11e4-ae4a-00000aab0f6bacdnat=1409279912_0012d28347b6791e31a8b5199f3daaa1 [Accessed: 29th August 2014]. Schoevers, R., Beekman, A., Deeg, D., et al. 2003. The natural history of late-life depression: results from the Amsterdam Study of the Elderly (AMSTEL) [Online]. Journal of Affective Disorders.76(1): pp 5–14. Available at: http://ac.els-cdn.com.abc.cardiff.ac.uk/S0165032702000605/1-s2.0-S0165032702000605-main.pdf?_tid=1814aa80-2f34-11e4-a381-00000aab0f27acdnat=1409286331_4cb7efb58af9c004b37dc4825f8831d5 [Accessed 19th August 2014].

Statistics Essays | Analysis of Data

Statistics Essays | Analysis of Data Consider and discuss the required approach to analysis of the data set provided. As part of this explore also how you would test the hypothesis below and explain the reasons for your decisions. Hypothesis 1: Male children are taller than female children. Null hypothesis; There is no difference in height between male children and female children. Hypothesis 2: Taller children are heavier. Null hypothesis: There is no relationship between how tall children are and how much they weigh. Analysis of data set The data set is a list of 30 childrens gender, age, height, the data weight, upper and lower limb lengths, eye colour, like of chocolate or not andIQ. There are two main things to consider before and the data. These are the types of data and the quality of the data as a sample. Types of data could be nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio.Nominal is also know as categorical. Coolican (1990) gives more details of all of these and his definitions have been used to decide the types of data in the data set. It is also helpful to distinguish between continuous numbers, which could be measured to any number of decimal places an discrete numbers such as integers which have finite jumps like 1,2 etc. Gender This variable can only distinguish between male or female.There is no order to this and so the data is nominal. Age This variable can take integer values. It could be measured to decimal places, but is generally only recorded as integer. It is ratio data because, for example, it would be meaningful to say that a 20 year old person is twice as old as a 10 year old. In this data set, the ages range from 120 months to 156months. This needs to be consistent with the population being tested. Height This variable can take values to decimal places if necessary. Again it is ratio data because, for example, it would be meaningful to say that a person who is 180 cm tall is 1.5 times as tall as someone 120cmtall. In this sample it is measured to the nearest cm. Weight Like height, this variable could take be measured to decimal places and is ratio data. In this sample it is measured to the nearest kg. Upper and lower limb lengths Again this variable is like height and weight and is ratio data. Eye colour This variable can take a limited number of values which are eye colours. The order is not meaningful. This data is therefore nominal(categorical). Like of chocolate or not As with eye colour, this variable can take a limited number of values which are the sample members preferences. In distinguishing merely between liking and disliking, the order is not meaningful. This data is therefore nominal (categorical). IQ IQ is a scale measurement found by testing each sample member. As such it is not a ratio scale because it would not be meaningful to say, for example, that someone with a score of 125 is 25% more intelligent than someone with a score of 100. There is another level of data mentioned by Cooligan into which none of the data set variables fit. That is Ordinal Data. This means that the data have an order or rank which makes sense. An example would be if 10students tried a test and you recorded who finished quickest, 2ndquickest etc, but not the actual time. The data is intended to be a sample from a population about which we can make inferences. For example in the hypothesis tests we want toknow whether they are indicative of population differences. The results can only be inferred on the population from which it is drawn it would not be valid otherwise. Details of sampling methods were found in Bland (2000). To accomplish the required objectives, the sample has to be representative of the defined population. It would also be more accurate if the sample is stratified by known factors like gender and age. This means that, for example, the proportion of males in the sample is the same as the proportion in the population. Sample size is another consideration. In this case it is 30.Whether this is adequate for the hypotheses being tested is examined below. Hypothesis 1: Male children are taller than female children. Swift (2001) gives a very readable account of the hypothesis testing process and the structure of the test. The first step is to set up the hypotheses: The Null hypothesis is that there is no difference in height between male children and female children. If the alternative was as Coolican describes it as we do not predict in which direction the results will go then it would have been a two-tailed test. In this case the alternative is that males are taller it is therefore a specific direction and so a one-tailed test is required. To test the hypothesis we need to set up a test statistic and then either match it against a pre-determined critical value or calculate the probability of achieving the sample value based on the assumption that the null hypothesis is true. The most commonly used significance level is 0.05. Accordingto Swift (2001) the significance level must be decided before the data is known. This is to stop researchers adjusting the significance level to get the result that they want rather than accepting or rejecting objectively. If the test statistic probability is less than 0.05 we would reject the null hypothesis that there is no difference between males and females in favour of males being heavier on the one sided basis. However it is possible for the test statistic to be in the rejection zone when in fact the null hypothesis is true. This is called a TypeI error. It is also possible for the test statistic to be in the acceptance zone when the alternative hypothesis is true (in other words the null hypothesis is false). This is called a Type II error. Power is 1 -probability of a Type II error and is therefore the probability of correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis. Whereas the Type I error is set at the desired level, the Type II error depends on the actual value of the alternative hypothesis. Coolican (1990) sets out the possible outcomes in the following table:

Nicholas Is Foreign Policy Essay -- essays research papers

Maintaining Order The Reign of Nicholas I has been marked with war. He grew up in a time when war was the accepted norm of Russia. As a child he saw his brother fight against the evil, which was Napoleon. With war being part of Nicholas everyday life he quickly became infatuated with it. â€Å"He always remained an army man, a junior officer at heart, devoted to his troops, to military exercises, to the parade ground, down to the last button on a soldiers uniform (Riasanovsky, 323)† Nicholas time growing up in Russia had an immense influence on him. He observed strategy’s like those of Prince Michael Kutuzov, and learned only with proper order can one fully achieve military dominance. Three major conflicts accurately describe how Nicholas I used his military. The Polish uprising illustrate his demand for proper order throughout Europe. The Crimean War displayed his love for the Christian faith, and what he would do to protect Orthodoxy. Lastly, the conflict between Greece and Turkey described how Nicholas I would act when a culmination of his ideas, conflicted with one another. Investigating how Nicholas I inherited the throne will give one an explanation on why he was so frightened by liberal thought. Nicholas I was basically forced to inherit the throne because, Constantine declared it was not in the best interest of Russia for him to succeed to the throne. On the day Nicholas I was to be inaugurated a peasant uprising manifested. This rebellion named the Decemberist’s put much more than a damper on Nicholas I afternoon. The revolt caused Nicholas I to never fully trust peasants throughout his reign. â€Å" No doubt it also contributed to the emperor’s mistrust of the gentry, and indeed of independence and initiative on the part of any subjects (Rias, 324).† From that day froward the Emperor would put down a law by the name of â€Å"Official Nationality (Rias, 324).† To fully comprehend how and why Nicholas I chose to run his foreign policy the way he did, one must delve into how his Empire was run at home. Nicholas I was influenced heavily by Christianity. Christianity drove him to believe that Official Nationality was the path towards Russian salvation, and only under this system could Russia maintain order. Official Nationality was a conservative system, which consisted of three principals; Orthodoxy, autocracy, and nationality. â€Å"Orthodoxy referred to the officia... ... a conflict that had both religious and revolutionary significance. This conflict between the Orthodox Greeks and the Turks eventually led to the aforementioned Crimean War. Nicholas I had a difficult decision on his hand because he would either have to side with the Orthodox Greeks or the Turks, which were the status quo at the time. One could see what Nicholas I valued more, religion or order. Nicholas I decided to side with the Greeks, making the Ottomans sign the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829 (Rias.,330). Nicholas I rule reflected in a striking manner both his character and his principles. The new regime became preeminently one of militarism and bureaucracy. The entire machinery of government came to be permeated by the military spirit of direct orders, Absolute obedience, and precision. Nicholas I ideals are what kept him from fulfilling the expectation people had of him. His main goals were to conserve autocracy and religious certainty, which Alexander had manifested years before. Nicholas I policy abroad hurt his Empire tremendously. His ignorance towards the possibility of maintaining order without Orthodoxy led his country into complete dissaray, and eventually his death.

Struggles for Equality under the AIAW/NCAA Merger :: Women Athelets Sports

Struggles for Equality under the AIAW/NCAA Merger In any movement by a marginalized social group to gain equal rights and recognition, there are always several factions with differing opinions of the best way to achieve the common goal. There are those who choose to work within the rules of the system as is it is already structured by the dominant social group, and there are those who choose to create their own branch, rewriting the rules to represent their own philosophies. Historically, women's athletics have been led by the second camp; by women who demanded a philosophy of sport with a vision unique from that of men?s athletics. Women's athletics remained, much like women as a social group, in its own separate sphere, leading its own organizational structure. But as the women's sphere was de-mystified (Spears, 1978) in the mid twentieth century, autonomous organizational structures were absorbed under the umbrella of formerly exclusively male athletics. This is the case as illustrated by the merger of the AIAW and the NCAA. On the surface, it may appear that full official inclusion of women's athletics into the structure of the patriarchy would bring primarily positive results such as increased funding and greater access to facilities. However, the present, past, and future ramifications of the merger are tangled in a web of political and social significance that is not so simple to label as all positive or all negative for the advancement of women's athletics and Feminism at large. I will briefly trace the history that led to the creation of the Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) as described by Joan Hult in 'The Story of Women's Athletics: Manipulating a Dream 1890-1985,' and then examine some of the pros and cons of the AIAW's 1981 merger with the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Hult explains that in the era between 1890-1920, women physical educators were a tightly knit, dedicated group committed to a tradition of restricted competition, self-governance, and a feminine approach to individual and team sports. They believed that all girls and women should have the opportunity to participate and enjoy sport, not only the talented elite as in the competition-driven male philosophical structure (87). Play-days and sport-days with emphasis on team building games were a means of perpetuating an image of an ideal American female athlete: feminine, beautiful, strong, yet always 'aware of her delicate reproductive system' (89). Seventy-five years later, though much had changed, the AIAW still adhered to a more fundamental interpretation of the original philosophy of women's athletics. Struggles for Equality under the AIAW/NCAA Merger :: Women Athelets Sports Struggles for Equality under the AIAW/NCAA Merger In any movement by a marginalized social group to gain equal rights and recognition, there are always several factions with differing opinions of the best way to achieve the common goal. There are those who choose to work within the rules of the system as is it is already structured by the dominant social group, and there are those who choose to create their own branch, rewriting the rules to represent their own philosophies. Historically, women's athletics have been led by the second camp; by women who demanded a philosophy of sport with a vision unique from that of men?s athletics. Women's athletics remained, much like women as a social group, in its own separate sphere, leading its own organizational structure. But as the women's sphere was de-mystified (Spears, 1978) in the mid twentieth century, autonomous organizational structures were absorbed under the umbrella of formerly exclusively male athletics. This is the case as illustrated by the merger of the AIAW and the NCAA. On the surface, it may appear that full official inclusion of women's athletics into the structure of the patriarchy would bring primarily positive results such as increased funding and greater access to facilities. However, the present, past, and future ramifications of the merger are tangled in a web of political and social significance that is not so simple to label as all positive or all negative for the advancement of women's athletics and Feminism at large. I will briefly trace the history that led to the creation of the Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) as described by Joan Hult in 'The Story of Women's Athletics: Manipulating a Dream 1890-1985,' and then examine some of the pros and cons of the AIAW's 1981 merger with the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). Hult explains that in the era between 1890-1920, women physical educators were a tightly knit, dedicated group committed to a tradition of restricted competition, self-governance, and a feminine approach to individual and team sports. They believed that all girls and women should have the opportunity to participate and enjoy sport, not only the talented elite as in the competition-driven male philosophical structure (87). Play-days and sport-days with emphasis on team building games were a means of perpetuating an image of an ideal American female athlete: feminine, beautiful, strong, yet always 'aware of her delicate reproductive system' (89). Seventy-five years later, though much had changed, the AIAW still adhered to a more fundamental interpretation of the original philosophy of women's athletics.

Frederick Douglass Essay examples -- Biography Biographies Bio

In Frederick Douglass' autobiography, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave, he writes about the inhumanity and brutality of slavery, with the intention of informing white, American colonists. Douglass is thought to be one of the greatest leaders of the abolition, which radically and dramatically changed the American way of life, thus revolutionizing America. Douglass changed America, and accomplished this through writing simply and to the point about the "reality" of slavery, told through the point of view of a slave. In a preface of Douglass' autobiography, William Lloyd Garrison writes, "I am confident that it is essentially true in all its statements; that nothing has been set down in malice, nothing exaggerated, nothing drawn from the imagination; that it comes short of reality, rather than overstates a single fact in regard to slavery as it is" (Douglass, 6). This statement authenticates and guarantees Douglass' words being nothing but the truth. Douglass' enslaved life was not an accurate representation of the common and assumed life of a slave. He, actually, often wished that he was not so different and had the same painful, but simpler ignorance that the other slaves had. It was his difference, his striving to learn and be free that made his life so complicated and made him struggle so indefinitely. Douglass expresses this in writing, "I envied my fellow-slaves for their stupidity. I have often wished myself a beastÂ…It was this everlasting thinking of my condition that tormented me" (Douglass, 53). In his narrative, Douglass does generalize to relate his experience to that of other slaves, creating a parallel between his life and the life of any other slave. He writes about the brutality, physi... ...edge. In his narrative, Douglass layers the many brutal, cruel, inhumane, and true components of slavery in his life, underlying each story with a political motive and relation. This method of writing was for his audience removed from slavery, those ignorant of slavery, uninformed, misunderstood, and those who were fortunate to have freedom. Douglass illustrates living conditions, experiences, tragedies, and struggles to great depths. Everywhere, African Americans escaped the binds of slavery due to Frederick Douglass' determination. He revolutionized America, being one of the greatest leaders of the abolition, being the reason for so many freed lives, and leading to the complete abolition and illegality of slavery in America. Works Cited Douglass, Frederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, An American Slave. Boston: The Anti-Slavery Office, 1845.